Inequality and inclusion in online public services
Digital technologies have changed how governments deliver public services, from applying for benefits to accessing official information. Yet not everyone can use these services equally. This PhD research examines how digital government can both help and hinder access to public services for people in vulnerable situations, focusing on Brazil and the Netherlands. Using a comparative case-study approach, the research analyses laws and policies, evaluates the usability of national government platforms, and draws on interviews with policymakers and experts. The findings show that Brazil and the Netherlands have taken very different paths. Brazil has developed a highly centralised digital government system through the gov.br platform, which brings many services together in one place and supports multiple access channels. This model improves efficiency and access for many people, but it can still exclude those with limited digital skills, poor internet access, or complex administrative needs. The Netherlands follows a decentralised approach, where many organisations design and manage their own digital services. This allows flexibility and innovation, and strong legal safeguards protect citizens’ rights. However, it also leads to fragmentation, inconsistent user experiences, and greater difficulties for people who struggle with digital or administrative tasks. The comparison shows that neither centralisation nor decentralisation automatically leads to inclusion. What matters most is how digital policies are framed, how institutions coordinate, and whether governments actively take into account the diverse realities of citizens. Inclusive digital government requires not only good technology, but also sustained political and institutional commitment to fairness and equality.